[also known as Columbanus]
Abbot of Luxeuil and Bobbio, born in West Leinster, Ireland, in 543; died at Bobbio, Italy, 21 November, 615.
His life was written by Jonas, an Italian monk of the Columban
community, at Bobbio, c. 643. This author lived during the abbacy of
Attala, Columbanus's immediate successor, and his informants had been
companions of the saint. Mabillon in the second volume of his "Acta
Sanctorum O.S.B." gives the life in full, together with an appendix on
the miracles of the saint, written by an anonymous member of the Bobbio
community.
Columbanus, whose birth took place the year St. Benedict died,
was from childhood well instructed. He was handsome and prepossessing in
appearance, and this exposed him to the shameless temptations of
several of his countrywomen. He also had to struggle with his own
temptations. At last he betook himself to a religious woman, who advised
him thus:
Twelve years ago I fled from the world, and shut myself up in this
cell. Hast thou forgotten Samson, David and Solomon, all led astray by
the love of women? There is no safety for thee, young man, except in
flight.
He thereupon decided to act on this advice and retire from the world.
He encountered opposition, especially from his mother, who strove to
detain him by casting herself before him on the threshhold of the door.
But, conquering the feelings of natures he passed over the prostrate
form and left his home forever. His first master was Sinell Abbot of
Cluaninis in Lough Erne. Under his tuition he composed a commentary on
the Psalms. He then betook himself to the celebrated monastery of Bangor
on the coast of Down, which at that time had for its abbot St. Comgall.
There he embraced the monastic state, and for many years led a life
conspicuous for fervour, regularity, and learning. At about the age of
forty he seemed to hear incessantly the voice of God bidding him preach
the Gospel in foreign lands. At first his abbot declined to let him go,
but at length he gave consent.
Columbanus set sail with twelve companions; their names have thus
come down to us: St. Attala, Columbanus the Younger, Cummain, Domgal,
Eogain, Eunan, St. Gall, Gurgano, Libran, Lua, Sigisbert and Waldoleno
(Strokes, "Apennines", p. 112). The little band passed over to Britain,
landing probably on the Scottish coast. They remained but a short time
in England, and then crossed over to France, where they arrived probably
in 585. At once they began their apostolic mission. Wherever they went
the people, were struck by their modesty, patience, and humility. France
at that period needed such a band of monks and preachers. Owing partly
to the incursions of barbarians, and partly due to the remissness of the
clergy, vice and impiety were prevalent. Columbanus, by his holiness,
zeal, and learning, was eminently fitted for the work that lay before
him. He and his followers soon made their way to the court of Gontram,
King of Burgundy. Jonas calls it the court of Sigisbert, King of
Austrasia and Burgundy, but this is manifestly a blunder, for Sigisbert
had been slain in 575. The fame of Columbanus had preceded him. Gontram
gave him a gracious reception, inviting him to remain in his kingdom.
The saint complied, and selected for his abode the half-ruined Roman
fortress of Annegray in the solitudes of the Vosges Mountains. Here the
abbot and his monks led the simplest of lives, their food oftentimes
consisting of nothing but forest herbs, berries, and the bark of young
trees. The fame of Columbanus's sanctity drew crowds to his monastery.
Many, both nobles and rustics, asked to be admitted into the community.
Sick persons came to be cured through their prayers. But Columbanus
loved solitude. Often he would withdrew to a cave seven miles distant,
with a single companion, who acted as messenger between himself and his
brothren. After a few years the ever-increasing number of his disciples
oblige him to build another monastery. Columbanus accordingly obtained
from King Gontram the Gallo-Roman castle named Luxeuil, some eight miles
distant from Annegray. It was in a wild district, thickly covered with
pine forests and brushwood. This foundation of the celebrated Abbey of
Luxueil, took place in 590. But these two monasteries did not suffice
for the numbers who came, and a third had to be erected at Fontaines.
The superiors of these houses always remained subordinate to Columbanus.
It is said this time, he was able to institute a perpetual service of
praise, known as
Laus perennis, by which choir succeded choir,
both day and night (Montalembert, Monks of the West II, 405). For these
flourishing communities he wrote his rule, which embodies the customs of
Bangor and other Celtic monasteries.
For wellnigh twenty years Columbanus resided in France and during
that time observed the unreformed paschal computation. But a dispute
arose. The Frankish bishops were not too well disposed towards this
stranger abbot, because of his ever-increasing influence, and at last
they showed their hostility. They objected to his Celtic Easter and his
exclusion of men as well as women from the precincts of his monasteries.
The councils of Gaul held in the first half of the sixth century had
given to bishops absolute authority over religious communities, even
going so far as to order the abbots to appear periodically before their
respective bishops to receive reproof or advice, as might be considered
necessary. These enactments, being contrary to the custom of the Celtic
monasteries, were readily accepted by Columbanus. In 602 the bishops
assembled to judge him. He did not appear, lest, as he tells us, "he
might contend in words", but instead addressed a letter to the prelates
in which he speaks with a strange mixture of freedom, reverence, and
charity. In it he admonishes them to hold synods more frequently, and
advises that they pay attention to matters equally important with that
of the date of Easter. As to his paschal cycle he says: "I am not the
author of this divergence. I came as a poor stranger into these parts
for the cause of Christ, Our Saviour. One thing alone I ask of you, holy
Fathers, permit me to live in silence in these forests, near the bones
of seventeen of my brethren now dead." When the Frankish bishops still
insisted that the abbot was wrong, then, in obedience to St. Patrick's
canon, he laid the question before Pope St. Gregory. He dispatched two
letters to that pontiff, but they never reached him, "through Satan's
intervention". The third letter is extant, but no trace of an answer
appears in St. Gregory's correspondence, owing probably to the fact that
the pope died in 604, about the time it reached Rome. In this letter he
defends the Celtic custom with considerable freedom, but the tone is
affectionate. He prays "the holy Pope, his Father", to direct towards
him "the strong support of his authority, to transmit the verdict of his
favour". Moreover, he apologizes "for presuming to argue as it were,
with him who sits in the chair of Peter, Apostle and Bearer of the
Keys". He directed another epistle to Pope Boniface IV, in which he
prays that, if it be not contrary to the Faith, he confirm the tradition
of his elders, so that by the papal decision (
judicium) he and
his monks may be enabled to follow the rites of their ancestors. Before
Pope Bonifice's answer (which has been lost) was given, Columbanus was
outside the jurisdiction of the Frankish bishops. As we hear no further
accusation on the Easter question — not even in those brought against
his successor, Eustasius of Luxeuil in 624 — it would appear that after
Columbanus had removed into Italy he gave up the Celtic Easter (cf. Acta
SS. O.S.B., II, p. 7).
In addition to the Easter question Columbanus had to wage war
against vice in the royal household. The young King Thierry, to whose
kingdom Luxeuil belonged, was living a life of debauchery. He was
completely in the hands of his grandmother, Queen Brunehault
(Brunehild). On the death of King Gontram the succession passed to his
nephew, Childebert II, son of Brunehault. At his death the latter left
two sons, Theodebert II and Thierry II, both minors. Theodebert
succeeded to Austrasia, Thierry to Burgundy, but Brunehault constituted
herself their guardian, and held in her own power the governments of the
two kingdoms. As she advanced in years she sacrificed everything to the
passion of sovereinity, hence she encouraged Thierry in the practice
concubinage in order that there might be no rival queen. Thierry,
however, had a veneration for Columbanus, and often visited him. On
these occasions the saint admonished and rebuked him, but in vain.
Brunehault became enraged with Columbanus, stirred up the bishops and
nobles to find fault with his rules regarding monastic enclosure.
Finally, Thierry and his party went to Luxeuil and ordered the abbot to
conform to the usages of the country. Columbanus refused, whereupon he
was taken prisoner to Besancon to await further orders. Taking advantage
of the absence of restraint he speedily returned to his monastery. On
hearing this, Thierry and Brunehault sent soldiers to drive him back to
Ireland. None but Irish monks were to accompany him. Accordingly, he was
hurried to Nevers, made to embark on the Loire, and thus proceed to
Nantes. At Tours he visited the tomb of St. Martin and sent a message to
Thierry that within three years he and his children would perish. At
Nantes, before the embarkation, he addressed a letter to his monks, full
of affection. It is a memorial of the love and tenderness which existed
in that otherwise austere and passionate soul. In it he desires all to
obey Attala, whom he requests to abide with the community unless strife
should arise on the Easter question. His letter concludes thus "They
come to tell me the ship is ready. The end of my parchment compels me to
finish my letter. Love is not orderly; it is this which has made it
confused. Farewell, dear hearts of mine; pray for me that I may live in
God." As soon as they set sail, such a storm arose that ship was driven
ashore. The captain would have nothing more to do with these holy men;
they were thus free to go where they pleased. Columbanus made his way to
the friendly King Clothaire at Soissons in Neustria where he was gladly
welcomed. Clothaire in vain pressed him to remain in his territory.
Columbanus left Neustria in 611 for the court of King Theodebert of
Austrasia. At Metz he received an honourable welcome, and then
proceeding to Mainz, he embarked upon the Rhine in order to reach the
Suevi and Alamanni, to whom he wished to preach the Gospel. Ascending
the river and its tributaries, the Aar and the Limmat, he came to the
Lake of Zurich. Tuggen was chosen as a centre from which to evangelize,
but the work was not successful. Instead of producing fruit, the zeal of
Columbanus only excited persecution. In despair he resolved to pass on
by way of Arbon to Bregenz on Lake Constance, where there were still
some traces of Christianity. Here the saint found an oratory dedicated
to St. Aurelia, into which the people had brought three brass images of
their tutelary deities. He commanded St. Gall, who knew the language, to
preach to the inhabitants, and many were converted. The images were
destroyed, and Columbanus blessed the little church, placing the relics
of St. Aurelia beneath the altar. A monastery was erected, and the
brethren forthwith observed their regular life. After about a year, in
consequence of another rising against the community, Columbanus resolved
to cross the Alps into Italy. An additional reason for his departure
was the fact that the arms of Thierry had prevailed against Theodebert,
and thus the country on the banks of the Upper Rhine had become the
property of his enemy.
On his arrival at Milan in 612, Columbanus met with a kindly
welcome from King Agilulf and Queen Theodelinda. He immediately began to
confute the Arians and wrote a treatise against their teaching, which
has been lost. At the request of the king, he wrote a letter to Pope
Boniface on the debated subject of "The Three Chapters". These writings
were considered to favour Nestorianism. Pope St. Gregory, however,
tolerated in Lombardy those persons who defended them, among whom was
King Agilulf. Columbanus would probably have taken no active part in
this matter had not the king pressed him so to do. But on this occasion
his zeal certainly outran his knowledge. The letter opens with all
apology that a "foolish Scot" should be charged to write for a Lombard
king. He acquaints the pope with the imputations brought against him,
and he is particularly severe with the memory of Pope Vigilius. He
entreats the pontiff to prove his orthodoxy and assemble a council. He
says that his freedom of speech accords with the usage of his country.
"Doubtless", Montalembert remarks, "some of the expressions which he
employs should be now regarded as disrespectful and justly rejected But
in those young and vigorous times, faith and austerity could be more
indulgent" (II, 440). On the other hand, the letter expresses the most
affectionate and impassioned devotion to the Holy See. The whole,
however, may be judged from this fragment: "We Irish, though dwelling at
the far ends of the earth, are all disciples of St. Peter and St. Paul .
. . Neither heretic, nor Jew, nor schismatic has ever been among us;
but the Catholic Faith, Just as it was first delivered to us by
yourselves, the successors of the Apostles, is held by us unchanged . . .
we are bound [
devincti] to the Chair of Peter, and although Rome
is great and renowned, through that Chair alone is she looked on as
great and illustrious among us . . .On account of the two Apostles of
Christ, you [the pope] are almost celestial, and Rome is the head of the
whole world, and of the Churches". If zeal for orthodoxy caused him to
overstep the limits of discretion, his real attitude towards Rome is
sufficiently clear. He declares the pope to be: "his Lord and Father in
Christ", "The Chosen Watchman", "The Prelate most dear to all the
Faithful", "The most beautiful Head of all the Churches of the whole of
Europe", "Pastor of Pastors", "The Highest", "The First", "The First
Pastor, set higher than all mortals", "Raised near into all the
Celestial Beings", "Prince of the Leaders", "His Father", "His immediate
Patron", "The Steersman", "The Pilot of the Spiritual Ship" (Allnatt,
"Cathedra Petri", 106).
But it was necessary that, in Italy, Columbanus should have a
settled abode, so the king gave him a tract of land called Bobbio,
between Milan and Genoa, near the River Trebbia, situated in a defile of
the Apennines. On his way thither he taught the Faith in the town of
Mombrione, which is called San Colombano to this day. Padre della Torre
considers that the saint made two journeys into Italy, and that these
have been confounded by Jonas. On the first occasion he went to Rome and
received from Pope Gregory many sacred relics (Stokes, Apennines, 132).
This may possibly explain the traditional spot in St. Peter's, where
St. Gregory and St. Columba are supposed to have met (Moran, Irish SS.
in Great Britain,105). At Bobbio the saint repaired the half-ruined
church of St. Peter, and erected his celebrated abbey, which for
centuries was stronghold of orthodoxy in Northern Italy. Thither came
Clothaire's messengers inviting the aged abbot to return, now that his
enemies were dead. But he could not go. He sent a request that the king
would always protect his dear monks at Luxeuil. He prepared for death by
retiring to his cave on the mountain-side overlooking the Trebbia,
where, according to a tradition, he had dedicated an oratory to Our Lady
(Montalembert, "Monks of the West", II, 444). His body has been
preserved in the abbey church at Bobbio, and many miracles are said to
have been wrought there through his intercession. In 1482 the relics
were placed in a new shrine and laid beneath the altar of the crypt,
where they are still venerated. But the altar and shrine are once more
to be restored, and for this end in 1907 all appeal was made by Cardinal
Logue, and there is every prospect of the work being speedily
accomplished. The sacristy at Bobbio possesses a portion of the skull of
the saint, his knife, wooden cup, bell, and an ancient water vessel,
formerly containing sacred relics and said to have been given him by St.
Gregory. According to certain authorities, twelve teeth of the saint
were taken from the tomb in the fifteenth century and kept in the
treasury, but these have now disappeared (Stokes, Apennines, p. 183).
St. Columbanus is named in the Roman Martyrology on 21 November, but his
feast is kept by the Benedictines and throughout Ireland on 24
November. Among his principal miracles are: (1) procuring of food for a
sick monk and curing the wife of his benefactor; (2) escape from hurt
when surrounded by wolves; (3) obedience of a bear which evacuated a
cave at his biddings; (4) producing a spring of water near his cave; (5)
repletion of the Luxeuil granary when empty; (6) multiplication of
bread and beer for his community; (7) curing of the sick monks, who rose
from their beds at his request to reap the harvest; (8) giving sight to
a blind man at Orleans; (9) destruction by his breath of a cauldron of
beer prepared for a pagan festival; (10) taming a bear, and yoking it to
a plough.
Like other men, Columbanus was not faultless. In the cause of God
he was impetuous and even head-strong, for by nature he was eager,
passionate, and dauntless. These qualities were both the source of his
power and the cause of mistakes. But his virtues were very remarkable.
He shared with other saints a great love for God's creatures. As he
walked in the woods, the birds would alight upon his shoulder that he
might caress them and the squirrels would run down from the trees and
nestle in the folds of his cowl. The fascination of his saintly
personality drew numerous communities around him. That he possessed real
affection for others is abundantly manifest in his letter to his
brethren. Archbishop Healy eulogises him thus: "A man more holy, more
chaste, more self-denying, a man with loftier aims and purer heart than
Columbanus was never born in the Island of Saints" (Ireland's Ancient
Schools, 378). Regarding his attitude towards the Holy See, although
with Celtic warmth and flow of words he could defend mere custom, there
is nothing in his strongest expressions which implies that, in matters
of faith, he for a moment doubted Rome's supreme authority. His
influence in Europe was due to the conversions he effected and to the
rule that he composed. What gave rise to his apostolate? Possibly the
restless energy of the Celtic character, which, not finding sufficient
scope in Ireland, directed itself in the cause of Christ to foreign
lands. It may be that the example and success of St. Columba in
Caledonia stimulated him to similar exertions. The example, however, of
Columbanus in the sixth century stands out as the prototype of
missionary enterprise towards the countries of Europe, so eagerly
follows up from England and Ireland by such men as Killian, Virgilius,
Donatus, Wilfrid, Willibrord, Swithbert, and Boniface. If Columbanus
abbey in Italy became a citadel of faith and learning, Luxeuil in France
became the nursery of saints and apostles. From its walls went forth
men who carried his rule, together with the Gospel, into France,
Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. There are said to have been sixty-three
such apostles (Stokes, Forests of France, 254). These disciples of
Columbanus are accredited with founding over one hundred different
monasteries (ib., 74). The canton and town still bearing the name of St.
Gall testify how well one disciple succeeded.
Columbanus has left us his own writings. They demonstrate that
his attainments were of no mean order. He continued his literary studies
till the very eve of his death. His works (Migne P.L. LXXX) include:
(1) "Penitencial" which prescribes penances according to guilt, a useful
guide in the absence of elaborate treatises on moral theology; (2)
"Seventeen short Sermons"; (3) "Six Epistles"; (4) "Latin Poems"; (5) "A
Monastic Rule". This Last is much shorter than that of St. Benedict,
consisting of only ten chapters. The first six of these treat of
obedience, silence, food, poverty, humility, and chastity. In these
there is much in common with the Benedictine code, except that the
fasting is more rigorous. Chapter vii deals with the choir Offices.
Sunday Martins in winter consisted of sevent-five psalms and twenty-five
antiphone—three psalms to each antiphone. In spring and autumn these
were reduced to thirty-six, and in summer to twenty-four, Fewer were
said on week days. The day hours consisted of Terce, Sext, None, and
Vespers. Three psalms were said at each of these Offices, except
Vespers, when twelve psalms were said. Chapter x regulates penances for
offences, and it is here that the Rule of St. Columbanus differs so
widely from that of St. Benedict. Stripes or fasts were enjoined for the
smallest faults. The habit of the monks consisted of a tunic of undyed
wool, over which was worn the
cuculla, or cowl, of the same
material. A great deal of time was devoted to various kinds of manual
labour. The Rule of St: Columbanus was approved of by the Council of
Macon in 627, but it was destined before the close of the century to be
superseded by that of St. Benedict. For several centuries in some of the
greater monasteries the two rules were observed conjointly. In art St.
Columbanus is represented bearded bearing the monastic cowl, he holds in
his hand a book with an Irish satchel, and stands in the midst of
wolves. Sometimes he is depicted in the attitude of taming a bear, or
with sunbeams over his head (Husenheth, "Emblems", p. 33).
COLUMBA EDMONDS (Catholic Encyclopedia)
“O
most beautiful Cross that was glorified by carrying the Body of Christ!
Glorious Cross, sweetly desired, ardently loved, always sought, and
finally prepared for my heart that has so long awaited you. Take me, O
Cross! Embrace me. Release me from my life among men. Bring me quickly
and diligently to the Master. Through you He will receive me, He, Who
through you has saved me.”
The
Apostle continued by saying that he had “ardently awaited” the cross.
Today men flee far from any kind of suffering, any kind of fight against
their own passions, any kind of renunciation. For them to live is to
enjoy a good life. Andrew, however, ardently awaited his own cross
because he understood that what counts in life is not the pleasure he
has, but the sacrifice he makes. This is what gives meaning to life.
Therefore, the truly supernatural man is a friend of the cross, as St.
Louis Marie de Montfort said so well.
In
the US, Thanksgiving dates back to the first colonists in Plymouth,
M.A. in 1621, who organized a feast in thanks for a good harvest.
Catherine
was born Zoé Labouré on May 2, 1806, the ninth of eleven children born
to a farm family in Fain-les-Moutiers, France. When only eight years
old, her mother died and Catherine was made responsible for the running
the house and helping her father. Although she would remain illiterate
her whole life, she was allowed to enter the convent of the Sisters of
Charity of St. Vincent de Paul on the Rue du Bac in the French capital
when she was twenty-two and took the name Catherine upon her profession.
From America, Europe and Asia
One
day she showed him a Miraculous Medal and explained its origin to him.
He seemed to pay attention, but when she offered it to him, he became
annoyed and snapped angrily: “Take that away, this Virgin is just an
ordinary woman.” “I will leave it on the table,” the nun replied, “I am
certain that you will think about what I said.” He did not answer her,
but, in order not to see the medal, he placed his bible on top of it.
Mrs.
C.H., a 70-year-old widow, had been admitted in impoverished
circumstances to the nursing home of Saint-Maur because of a bad fall
that occurred on August 7, 1833. She walked with great difficulty and
even with the help of a crutch needed someone’s arm for support. She
also found it hard to sit and only with great difficulty was she able to
rise again. It was almost impossible for her to climb stairs, as she
had to hold on to whatever she could to do so. She could not bend down
or kneel, and had to drag her left leg, as that was where the problem
lay.
Despite
my every effort to persuade him, I also failed. I then thought it
better to allow him to reflect a little while and to return another day
to find out his decision. In the meantime, I asked him to have recourse
to the Most Holy Virgin, refuge of sinners; and, without telling him, I
placed a Miraculous Medal in his pillow and departed.
On
November 9, 1835, Rosalie Ducas from Jauchelette, near Jodoigne,
suddenly lost her sight. She was only four and a half years old, in
perfect health with no signs of illness. Any light or breeze disturbed
her to the point of having to cover her face with a cloth folded in
four. The pains the child suffered day and night caused everyone much
grief.
This
Christian carried a Miraculous Medal and took it into his hand. Drawing
near to the possessed boy, he showed it to him, ordering the devil to
leave him alone and depart, which happened immediately. The boy, seeing
the Christian with the medal, threw himself to the ground before this
image without knowing what it was. The pagans, who had watched him from
afar, were astounded.
When
she revealed the Miraculous Medal, Our Lady clearly promised that
“everyone who wears it, when it is blessed, will receive great graces,
especially if they wear it around their neck.” She did not put
restrictive conditions; she said “everyone.” And then completed the
phrase with: “The graces will be abundant to those who use it with
confidence.”
This son of the soil became one of the most illustrious preachers in the history of the Franciscan Order.
Widely
regarded in his own lifetime as a second St. Francis of Assisi, he died
in 1742 just as he was beginning the solemn novena for the feast of the
Immaculate Conception. Upon hearing of his death, the poor children of
Lucera ran through the streets, crying "The saint is dead! The saint is
dead!" In this humble Franciscan they had lost a true father and
protector.
The
Emperor Maximinus, who was violently persecuting the Christians at the
time, was astounded when the young maiden presented herself to him and
boldly admonished him for his cruelty and persecution, and endeavored to
prove to him by the strength and logic of her arguments how iniquitous
was the worship of false gods. Completely taken aback by Catherine’s
audacity but unable to counteract any of her arguments himself, the
Emperor summoned numerous scholars to the imperial palace to compel the
young girl, by sophistic counter arguments and devious subterfuges, to
apostatize against the Faith. However, not only did Catherine emerge
from the contest victorious, but she conquered several of her
adversaries by the eloquence and resounding veracity of her words.
Declaring themselves won over to the Christian Faith, these new
adherents were immediately put to death by the enraged Emperor and
Catherine was most brutally scourged and imprisoned.
During
His life in this world, Our Lord exercised aspects of all professions
fit for man—from the highest to the lowest. To even begin to appreciate
the perfection of His Person, we would have to imagine the archetype of
every licit profession known to man.
Our Lord personified the fulfillment of the Sacrament of Holy Orders. He was Priest and Pontiff
par excellence. The priests of the Old Testament prefigured His
priesthood, and every priest after Him would share His priesthood as an
"alter Christus" - another Christ. On Holy Thursday, Christ was the
Priest and Victim of the first Mass, which prefigured His sacrificial
offering on the altar of the cross.
Born
in 1795 in the Tonkinese town of Bac-Nihh in North Vietnam, Tran An
Dung was the son of pagan parents. In search of work for themselves in
1807, his parents moved to the ancient citadel of Hanoi. Here their
twelve-year-old son was taken care of by a catechist and for three years
was instructed in the Catholic faith. Baptized in Vinh-Tri, he received
the Christian name Andrew (Anrê) in baptism and went on to learn both
Chinese and Latin and himself became a catechist. He was selected for
further studies in theology and was ordained to the priesthood on March
15, 1823.
To
avoid further persecution by the authorities, Andrew Dung changed his
name to Lac and relocated to a different region. While visiting a fellow
priest, in order to confess himself, Dung-Lac was arrested with Father
Peter Thi on November 10, 1839. In exchange for a monetary ransom paid
to their captors, the two priests were liberated, but their freedom was
short-lived. Re-arrested not long afterwards, they were taken to Hanoi
and severely tortured. They were beheaded shortly before Christmas Day
on December 21, 1839.
